The Culture Issue - Whither National Culture?
By Dato' Dr Ghulam Sarwar Yousof
Uniquely, due to historical developments in the region over the past two millennia, Malaysia is home to numerous communities and sub-communities each possessing its own defining qualities, qualities that make the communities; the dozens of communities loosely defined for the purpose of convenience or political expediency as Malays, Chinese, Indians or Others. Each of these communities and sub-communities possess their own identifying traits of character, customs, manners as well as cultural heritage, and yet through the intermingling of communities and their cultural expressions and manifestations, this mixture has been a source of pride, even strength, as indicated in the movement towards and the attaining of independence. This amalgam of races was also to become a source of tension in every sense of the word, more or less, subdued or apparent, as the nation's short history of fifty years has demonstrated time and again.
Since the Federation of Malaya became independent in 1957 and even following the establishment of Malaysia in 1963, cultural considerations did not figure in any serious way in the life of the country. Culture was there, in all its multiplicity; there was no real change, not even in the language - the primary vehicle of culture - for while Bahasa Melayu became the official language, English retained its status as the language of education and to a great extent continued to be used in administration. This is not to deny that there were rumblings with changes in the demographic situation after the formation of Malaysia, tensions leading ultimately to the split between Malaysia and Singapore.
When, in the wake of the 1969 race riots, the erstwhile tranquility was suddenly shattered it became clear that the major and minor cultures could indeed become the source of division rather than unity. This was the beginning of drastic changes in the political situation, in the cultural landscape, as well as in virtually every sphere of the nation's life. For all intents and purposes, the previous state of affairs now proved to be untenable. It appeared that it was not sufficient just to tolerate other cultures that now had to be understood, and taken seriously; one had to come to with them. Unfortunately, as subsequent events were to prove, even this would be insufficient to restore harmony.
Culture was revisited following the 1969 riots. Tunku Abdul Rahman, the then Prime Minister explained, rightly or wrongly, that the absence of a single national identity amongst the country's many ethnic groups, as well as misunderstanding or miscommunication between them, was what lay behind the violence. The time appeared right for the institution of a national cultural policy. The National Cultural Congress held at the University of Malaya from 16-20 August 1971 debated fifty-two papers, of varying degrees of quality, on various aspects of culture. These papers were eventually published by the Ministry of Culture Youth and Sports in 1973 as Asas-Asas Kebudayaan Kebangsaan. The forward to the volume outlines the three basic principles:
(a) that the National Culture would be based on that of the indigenous inhabitants of the region;
(b) that elements from other cultures, which were suitable and reasonable, might be incorporated into the national culture, and
(c) that Islam would be a crucial component of the National Culture.
Looking at it in hindsight, the definition, perhaps put together in too great a hurry, has remained contentious. Based on the recommendations of the National Cultural Congress, new policies began to be formulated, affecting almost every aspect of Malaysian life.
The Problems
The National Cultural Policy has encountered problems from the very start and also after more than three decades since its formulation and implementation. Much confusion, to the extent that further elaboration certainly called for was not forthcoming, and suspicions continued to remain regarding its basic intentions. The fact that Malay identity began to be asserted, with the marginalisation of other races, caused suspicions that arose in May 1969 to remain strong and this gained further legitimacy in years to come. Furthermore, with later developments, it became impossible to separate culture from politics, and more importantly, politics from business. To further complicate matters, Malaysia had to come to terms with the worldwide revival of Islam.
Islam was the country's official religion from the very start and there seemed no reason to go beyond such a statement and the guarantees provided in the Constitution. But, with the rising tide of Islam in politics and then culture, the religion became important, finding among some a sympathetic response, while others saw it as a further means of asserting their authority or of enhancing their wealth. It was thus inevitable that PAS would assume a greater role in the implementation of Islamic policies and even Islamic law, at least in Kelantan, through this affecting culture and the arts.
However, with Mahathir Muhammad declaring Malaysia an Islamic state, even if in ambiguous terms, and with the intention of asserting Malay identity and perhaps gaining recognition as well as investments from the Middle East, the picture as far as culture was concerned, was once again affected. The implications of this stance were not always evident. It was clear that there was no intention to implement Islamic law at the federal level. There was also no intention, except in a symbolic manner to bring about a revision of cultural policies. But, things have not remained that way, and clearly Islam is becoming increasingly strident, leading towards discomfort amongst non-Malays and a possible confrontational situation. The ramifications are everywhere to be seen.
Implications of Islam in Cultural Policy
It is clear that culture will be affected by such policies, possibly in negative ways, and Malay culture is likely to be most affected. Many things previously taken for granted have become controversial. The ongoing arguments connected with yoga are a case in point. Extending these arguments further, if elements from Hinduism, Buddhism and other religions and cultures are regarded - at times arbitrarily and without justification, as controversial and to be cleansed out - what will be left? Perhaps an undefined sterile culture or one based on animism, the very basis of Southeast Asian and Malay culture in the first place. This is a dilemma for the Malays more than it is for the others. It has led to certain highly ironic situations. To take just one example, the Mak Yong dance theatre of Kelantan was recognized in 2005 by UNESCO as an item of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Mankind based on a proposal written by this writer and submitted by the Malaysian Ministry of Culture Arts and Heritage. At the national level, this recognition brings with it a responsibility to preserve and promote this art form, one replete with animistic and pre-Islamic elements and controversial in many ways. At the state level, however, these very elements have prompted the Kelantan government to ban Mak Yong.
Revisiting the National Cultural Policy and Reassertion of Ethnic Identity
The policy as been reviewed and reinterpreted several times. With each revisiting, attempts have been made to make it more Malay, resulting in strong reactions from the other communities. This is a phenomenon that over the years has occurred several times. In the 1990s, culture was repositioned within the drive towards reaching the status as an industrialized nation by 2020. There was also the attempt to bring about concerted development in the tourism sector, and Vision 2020 was promoted as a new blueprint for national identity, with the resultant softening of the hard line Chinese view.
Reassertion of Identity
The lack of official support has become a means of self-preservation in the Chinese, Hindu/Indian and other communities to the extent that, in some instances at least, there has been some sort of revival of certain aspects of their culture, particularly the more visible aspects. The Chinese and Tamil Indians, the latter threatened with diminishing numbers to some extent through conversion into Islam or Christianity, began to assert their own cultures in manners that are not always acceptable to the Malays.
In recent months, this reassertion of identity has taken new shape, particularly in the case of the Tamil Hindus through Hindraf. This, and the need for preservation has led to the revival of some of the lesser known festivals, with an apparently significant number of festivals now being celebrated compared to the pre-1969 period. The celebration of Thaipusam, the major Tamil Hindu festival, has reached a vastly greater scale than before; it is in fact celebrated in Penang and Batu Caves on greater scale than it is observed in Tamil Nadu itself. The unashamed exploitation of the festival for the "legitimate" purposes of tourism has certainly boosted it, without any kind of negative reaction from those in authority who have seen the increasing crowd and publicity as being to their advantage, politically. That, is the public stance; privately there is consternation to the manner in which the festival has been exploited for commercial purposes, with some possible detraction from its sacred character.
The Punjabi Sikh community have take every opportunity to project their culture, particularly through Vasakhi and other festivals as well as throught the bhangra dance, to the extent that certain elements shared by all Punjabis, irrespective as to whether they are Muslims, Christians and Hindu are now regarded in the Malaysian content as belonging to the Sikhs alone.
On a somewhat lesser scale, this reassertion of identity through festivals is seen in many other examples, the Chinese Nine Emperor Gods festival, the Hungry Ghosts festival and so on. Not forgetting those in Sabah and Sarawak as well, or by the Thais in Kelantan, Kedah and Penang who have also become increasingly visible on the Malaysian cultural landscape, particularly through their two important festivals, Songkhran and Loy Kraton.
Conclusion
Much has transpired since Independence and the formulation of the NCP in the 1970's. Yet as Malaysia goes headlong into the first quarter of the 21st century, and its Vision 2020 many questions remain unanswered as far as cultural status and cultural policies are concerned. The ethno-political debate on status of minorities has been reopened in highly dramatic fashion by recent political developments and with the Hindraf activities in particular; in other ways too there are clear signs of the reassertion of cultural (racial, religious) identity and the search for cultural space as demonstrated by the battle over the construction of larger statues of gods and goddesses, exemplified by the golden statue of Murugan standing at the entrance to Batu Caves, and others already in place or being planned in both parts of the country. It is interesting to see how the battle in some fashion, despite attempts to distract it through the carrot and stick effort, still rages and will continue to do so in the coming decades as the goalposts keep changing. National Culture, and through it, a truly national identity, clearly defined, continues to elude Malaysia, whose many communities, while embracing modernity, have consequently resorted to a return to their own roots to provide hem with a safe sense of identity.
In all of these, the one community apparently handicapped is the Malay community. While political power and increasing affluence have given the Malays a considerable advantage, speaking in material terms, there remains the dilemma of deciding on their cultural identity. There appear to be several choices: (a) returning to the past, and accepting it, in its exciting, variegated complexity, something the Malays have been trying very seriously to run away from; (b) coming totally to terms with an Islamic, (sometimes mistakenly seen, in this country, as Arab) identity; (c) abandoning the finer manifestations of culture including religion and spirituality, and, through emphasis upon tangible material achievements, reaching for the skies in monuments surpassing even KLCC.
Barring any total collapse of the entire fabric of the nation, this final one is the most likely scenario.
Ghulam Sarwar Yousof graduated in English from the University of Malaya (1964), and did a Doctorate in Asian Theatre at the University of Hawaii (1976). Professor Ghulam-Sarwar Yousof was responsible for setting up Malaysia's first Performing Arts programme at the Science University of Malaysia (USM) in Penang in 1970. He served at that university as lecturer and Associate Professor. He joined the Cultural Centre, University of Malaya (UM) as Professor in 2002. Currently he is Adjunct Professor at the Centre, and also Director of The Asian Cultural Heritage Centre Berhad, a private research initiative set up by him to promote research in traditional Asian cultures. He is one of Malaysia's most distinguished scholars, and one of the world's leading specialists of traditional Southeast Asian theatre.